When delegates gathered in Philadelphia during the sweltering summer of 1787, American unity stood on precarious ground. You often read about the finished charter, yet fierce disputes almost derailed the proceedings before the convention concluded.
Fifty-five men arrived to debate the nation’s future, but only thirty-nine signed the document on September 17. Several prominent delegates staged dramatic walkouts, while three leading figures refused to sign on the final day.
Examining these convention walkouts and ideological holdouts shows you how intense resistance fundamentally shaped the United States Constitution.
How We Documented the Convention’s Clashes and Walkouts
You can trace the fiery debates of 1787 through surviving legislative journals, delegates’ personal diaries, and official state instructions. Our editorial team examined primary accounts to understand why key framers abandoned or opposed the new charter.
This list covers the four-month drafting period between May 14 and September 17, 1787. It tracks delegate credentials, floor debates, official protest letters, and the final signing ceremony at the Pennsylvania State House.
We verified each event against records preserved in the National Archives Founding Fathers collection and James Madison’s legislative notes. These sources reveal the precise procedural motions that triggered walkouts and dissent.
Every entry highlights an official boycott, a strategic walkout, or a principled refusal to sign. You will discover the specific roll calls, state resolutions, and institutional compromises that defined this formative summer.
By examining these contested moments, you gain actionable insight into how early political leaders balanced centralized executive authority against local sovereignty.
The Rhode Island Boycott Over Paper Money and State Debt
Rhode Island completely boycotted the Constitutional Convention and refused to send a single representative to Philadelphia. State leaders feared a centralized federal government would dismantle their aggressive paper currency policies and local debtor relief measures.
The Rhode Island General Assembly formally rejected invitations to appoint delegates five separate times throughout 1787. Rural populist factions controlled the legislature and guarded their power to print unbacked paper legal tender.
The Library of Congress Continental Congress collection shows how Rhode Island’s recalcitrance motivated federalists to circumvent the requirement of unanimous state approval. Nationalist delegates recognized that unanimous consent under the Articles of Confederation paralyzed effective governance.
Article VII codified this strategic workaround by declaring that ratification by nine of the thirteen states would establish the Constitution between those ratifying states.
- The Rhode Island General Assembly rejected convention invitations in March, May, June, September, and November 1787.
- State leaders feared federal treaty powers would enforce foreign debt collections against local merchants and small farmers.
- Rhode Island delayed joining the new constitutional union until May 29, 1790, ratifying by a narrow two-vote margin.
The Tardy Quorum at the Pennsylvania State House
The Confederation Congress called the convention to assemble on May 14, 1787, but the hall remained practically empty. Torrential spring rainstorms and muddy roads delayed traveling delegates across the Atlantic seaboard.
Only delegates from Pennsylvania and Virginia arrived in the assembly chamber on the scheduled start date. The convention could not conduct official parliamentary business without a working quorum of seven state delegations.
Delegates secured their required seven-state quorum eleven days late on May 25, 1787, when New Jersey representatives finally entered the chamber. The assembly immediately elected George Washington as convention president by unanimous vote.
This frustrating delay revealed the immense logistical challenges you faced when coordinating political action across the thirteen independent states.
- Pennsylvania and Virginia delegates met informally for eleven days while waiting for other state delegations to arrive.
- The arrival of New Jersey delegates on May 25 provided the essential seventh state needed to initiate formal floor debate.
- The convention promptly adopted strict secrecy rules on May 29 to protect delegates from outside political pressure.
A Youthful Assembly Led by Two Generational Bookends
You might imagine the framers as elderly patriarchs, but the delegates were surprisingly young. The average age among the fifty-five participating delegates was forty-two years old.
Jonathan Dayton of New Jersey arrived as the convention’s youngest delegate at age twenty-six. Dayton joined active floor debates on congressional power and signed the finished Constitution in September.
Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania served as the convention’s oldest member at eighty-one years of age. Severe gout prevented Franklin from standing for long periods, so fellow Pennsylvania delegates read his speeches aloud to the room.
This clash between youthful ambition and seasoned revolutionary experience produced sharp arguments over how quickly federal power should expand.
- Nearly half of the fifty-five delegates attending the Philadelphia convention were in their thirties.
- Alexander Hamilton was thirty years old, while James Madison contributed his pivotal constitutional analysis at age thirty-six.
- Franklin used his elder statesman status to broker crucial compromises whenever debates threatened to dissolve the convention.
Patrick Henry’s Outright Boycott of the Philadelphia Assembly
The Virginia legislature appointed revolutionary patriot Patrick Henry as an official delegate to the Philadelphia convention. Henry refused the appointment, suspecting the assembly would construct an overreaching national government at the expense of state sovereignty.
Henry later explained his decision during the Virginia Ratifying Convention in June 1788, famously declaring that he “smelt a rat.” Fellow Virginia statesman Richard Henry Lee also declined appointment, warning against centralizing federal authority.
Their refusal to participate deprived states’ rights advocates of their most persuasive orators during the crucial drafting stage. Nationalist delegates like James Madison and James Wilson seized the opening to propose an entirely new constitutional framework.
Henry’s boycott demonstrated how deep philosophical divisions existed before delegates even drafted their first line of text.
- Patrick Henry feared the proposed convention would dismantle the Articles of Confederation and resurrect a monarchical executive.
- Richard Henry Lee declined his appointment because he believed serving simultaneously in Congress presented an irreconcilable conflict.
- Virginia Governor Edmund Randolph replaced declining delegates with individuals more receptive to systemic constitutional reform.
The New York Walkout That Left Alexander Hamilton Voiceless
New York sent three delegates to the convention, but two held deep anti-nationalist convictions. Delegates Robert Yates and John Lansing Jr. walked out of Independence Hall in direct protest on July 10, 1787.
Yates and Lansing declared that the assembly had illegally abandoned its mandate to revise the Articles of Confederation. You can examine their formal protest letter to Governor George Clinton in the Avalon Project convention debates archive.
Their departure stripped Alexander Hamilton of official voting power on the convention floor. Convention rules mandated that a state needed at least two delegates present to cast an official vote.
Hamilton continued speaking in debates, but New York remained officially unrepresented during state roll calls for the rest of the summer.
- Yates and Lansing departed immediately after the convention approved proportional representation in the lower house.
- The walkout rendered New York unable to vote on the crucial Great Compromise on July 16, 1787.
- Hamilton signed the final Constitution on September 17 as an individual delegate rather than for his state.
Luther Martin’s Fierce Summer Walkout Over State Sovereignty
Maryland delegate Luther Martin emerged as one of the convention’s fiercest defenders of state independence. He delivered relentless, multi-hour speeches attacking the Virginia Plan’s push for proportional representation and national supremacy.
Martin argued that a consolidated central government would destroy the sovereignty of smaller states and trample individual liberty. He also fiercely denounced the Three-Fifths Compromise, warning that counting enslaved people for representation rewarded human bondage.
Disgusted by the convention’s centralizing direction, Martin walked out of Philadelphia on September 4, 1787. Fellow Maryland delegate John Francis Mercer had already departed in protest weeks earlier after attending for less than a fortnight.
Martin returned to Maryland and delivered his stinging “Genuine Information” address to the state legislature, arming anti-federalists across the country with detailed arguments against ratification.
- Martin gave a grueling two-day speech in late June 1787 asserting that states were sovereign, equal entities.
- He opposed granting the proposed federal government any direct taxation authority over individual citizens.
- His Maryland colleague John Francis Mercer joined his walkout after concluding that delegates intended to establish an oligarchy.
The Absent Signer Authorized by Proxy
Historical rosters record thirty-nine signers on the federal Constitution, but only thirty-eight men physically signed the parchment on September 17, 1787. Delaware delegate John Dickinson had departed early due to severe headaches and physical exhaustion.
Dickinson left written instructions authorizing fellow Delaware delegate George Read to sign on his behalf. Read penned Dickinson’s name onto the document directly underneath his own signature in the Delaware column.
Dickinson’s proxy signature preserved Delaware’s unanimous support and honored his critical work brokering the Great Compromise. You can review his legislative contributions through the U.S. Senate Historical Office analysis of convention compromises.
His agreement underscored how compromise saved the convention even when delegates suffered debilitating illness during the grueling Philadelphia summer.
- Dickinson authored the influential 1767 Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania before helping draft the Articles of Confederation.
- He championed equal state representation in the Senate to protect Delaware and other small states from domination.
- Dickinson later published nine essays under the pen name Fabius to persuade Delaware citizens to ratify the Constitution.
George Mason’s Stand for a Bill of Rights
Virginia statesman George Mason participated extensively throughout the convention debates and helped draft essential structural clauses. However, on September 12, 1787, Mason moved to prefix a formal bill of rights to the completed draft.
The state delegations voted ten to zero against Mason’s motion, concluding that existing state declarations of rights provided adequate protection. Mason refused to sign the final document on September 17, warning that the federal structure lacked safeguards against tyranny.
Mason also opposed the compromise that allowed the transatlantic slave trade to continue until 1808. He drafted his famous critique, the “Objections of George Mason,” preserved at the Avalon Project at Yale Law School.
Mason’s stubborn refusal catalyzed the nationwide campaign that forced James Madison to draft the Bill of Rights during the First Congress.
- Mason authored the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights, which served as the model for state constitutions nationwide.
- He warned that the Constitution created an unchecked Senate and an executive capable of colluding against public interests.
- Mason declared on the floor that he would cut off his right hand before signing the unamended charter.
Edmund Randolph’s Rejection of His Own Framework
Virginia Governor Edmund Randolph introduced the Virginia Plan on May 29, 1787, sparking the convention’s shift toward a strong national government. His fifteen resolutions established the operational framework for three separate branches of federal authority.
Despite creating that initial blueprint, Randolph refused to sign the completed Constitution on September 17. He feared the executive branch wielded unchecked authority and warned that the federal judiciary would gradually swallow state judicial power.
Randolph moved for a second constitutional convention to consider state-proposed amendments before final adoption, but every state delegation rejected his proposal. The delegates feared reopening negotiations would dismantle months of delicate compromises.
Randolph eventually reversed his position during the 1788 Virginia Ratifying Convention, voting to ratify the document to prevent national disunion.
- Randolph served as head of the Virginia delegation and presented James Madison’s radical structural ideas to the assembly.
- He argued on September 15 that the Constitution gave Congress excessive power under the commerce clause.
- President George Washington appointed Randolph as the nation’s first Attorney General in September 1789.
Elbridge Gerry’s Warning Against Executive and Legislative Confusion
Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts stood alongside Mason and Randolph as the third and final delegate present who refused to sign the Constitution. Gerry argued that the document dangerously merged executive and legislative authorities.
Gerry raised sharp objections against the Necessary and Proper Clause and congressional power to maintain standing armies during peacetime. He also protested the absence of guaranteed jury trials in civil lawsuits.
You can examine his formal reasoning in the letter he submitted to the Massachusetts General Court in October 1787. He warned his home state that the new charter threatened to establish an oppressive political aristocracy.
Gerry later served in the U.S. House of Representatives and became the fifth Vice President of the United States under James Madison.
- Gerry chaired the committee that negotiated the Great Compromise between large and small state representation.
- He authored a formal pamphlet outlining his objections, which circulated widely among New England anti-federalists.
- His later tenure as Massachusetts governor inspired the political term “gerrymandering” due to partisan redistricting.
| Delegate | State | Stance / Convention Role | Final Action (Sept 17, 1787) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Patrick Henry | Virginia | Declined seat; feared centralized monarchy | Boycotted convention |
| Robert Yates | New York | Opposed national consolidation of power | Walked out July 10, 1787 |
| John Lansing Jr. | New York | Defended state sovereignty and confederation | Walked out July 10, 1787 |
| Luther Martin | Maryland | Opposed federal supremacy and slave compromises | Walked out Sept 4, 1787 |
| John Dickinson | Delaware | Drafted Great Compromise framework | Signed by proxy (George Read) |
| George Mason | Virginia | Demanded bill of rights and trade limits | Refused to sign |
| Edmund Randolph | Virginia | Introduced Virginia Plan; feared executive power | Refused to sign |
| Elbridge Gerry | Massachusetts | Warned against military and judicial overreach | Refused to sign |
| Alexander Hamilton | New York | Advocated strong, centralized executive | Signed as individual |
How Convention Walkouts and Dissent Forged the American Republic
The walkouts and refusals in Philadelphia were not procedural failures. They directly forced the framers to defend their design before a skeptical public and ultimately led to the Bill of Rights.
When delegates like Yates, Lansing, and Martin abandoned the convention, they sounded an early alarm about consolidated federal power. Their exit ignited the fierce public debate that produced the Anti-Federalist Papers.
In response, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay authored the Federalist Papers to systematically answer those specific critiques. You can study these arguments to understand the intended boundaries of executive, legislative, and judicial power.
The vocal refusal of George Mason and Elbridge Gerry to sign on September 17 created immediate political leverage during the state ratifying conventions. Several pivotal states, including Massachusetts and Virginia, conditioned their ratification on the immediate addition of protective amendments.
Recognizing that popular resistance could shatter the young republic, James Madison fulfilled that political bargain in the First Congress in 1789. He drafted twelve proposed amendments, ten of which became the Bill of Rights in 1791.
You can trace the roots of freedom of speech, trial by jury, and state powers directly back to the dissenters who refused to sign. Their opposition transformed what began as a nationalist consolidation into a balanced constitutional republic.
When you analyze contemporary struggles over federal jurisdiction and individual liberties, you are participating in the exact same debate that divided Philadelphia in 1787. The walkouts and holdouts proved that dissent is an indispensable component of constitutional governance.
You can review the complete parchment text and signatures directly through the National Archives Charters of Freedom educational portal.
Frequently Asked Questions About the 1787 Constitutional Convention
Why did Rhode Island completely boycott the Constitutional Convention?
Rhode Island boycotted the convention because state leaders feared a strong national government would outlaw local paper currency. The state legislature was controlled by a debtor-friendly Country Party that printed unbacked paper money to relieve indebted farmers.
State politicians also worried that federal import duties would destroy their profitable maritime trade. Rhode Island refused to join the Union until May 29, 1790, ratifying only after Congress threatened severe commercial sanctions.
How many delegates attended the convention, and how many signed?
State legislatures appointed seventy-four delegates, but only fifty-five attended the sessions at Independence Hall. Out of those fifty-five attendees, thirty-nine delegates signed the final Constitution on September 17, 1787.
Only thirty-eight delegates physically signed the parchment that afternoon, because Delaware delegate George Read signed on behalf of the ill John Dickinson. Thirteen delegates left Philadelphia early, and three present in the room refused to sign.
Did any delegates who refused to sign the Constitution change their minds later?
Yes, Virginia Governor Edmund Randolph reversed his position during the Virginia Ratifying Convention in June 1788. Randolph decided that union under an imperfect Constitution was preferable to national disunion and potential civil conflict.
In contrast, George Mason and Elbridge Gerry maintained their principled opposition to the unamended charter. Gerry eventually accepted the new government and served as a congressman after Madison introduced the Bill of Rights.
How many original copies of the 1787 Constitution still survive today?
Printers Dunlap and Claypoole produced five hundred official first-edition copies on September 17 and 18, 1787. Only eleven of those original convention copies survive today.
A private collector bought the only privately held copy at a Sotheby’s auction in November 2021 for 43.2 million dollars. That landmark transaction set an auction record for a historical document.
Additionally, Congress ordered one hundred ratification copies in late September 1787, of which only eight survive. An eighth copy discovered in North Carolina sold at auction on October 17, 2024, for 11.07 million dollars.